English 415
Sections 50 & 250

Diglossia

n Another example of how language is used in a social context involves the phenomenon of Diglossia.

n In an article first published in 1959, Charles Ferguson initially gives the following definition for Diglossia: "One particular kind of standardization where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play."

Diglossia

n Diglossia, Ferguson claims, is not a stage which "occurs always and only at a certain point in some kind of evolution of the standardization process.“

n Diglossic situations, rather, may develop from various origins and may result in different language situations.

Diglossia

n What is essential for a diglossic situation is that there be a specialization of function for both the High variety, which Ferguson calls the ‘superposed’ variety, the variety that is not the primary, native variety for the speakers in question, but may be learned in addition to the native variety, and the Low variety, or the regional or local dialect.

Diglossia

n Ferguson posits four defining communities to explain the phenomenon of diglossia:

n 1.     Arabic (Classical vs. the various colloquial forms on the language which differ from one Arab country to another)

n 2.     Modern Greek (the High form is called Katharévusa, the Low form Dhimotiki)

Diglossia

n 3.     Swiss German (Standard German vs. Swiss German dialects)

n 4.     Haitian Creole (Standard French vs. French-based Haitian Creole)

Diglossia

n As a way of defining what diglossia is, Ferguson attempts to classify diglossic situations in terms of nine separate categories.

n Ferguson begins by attempting to classify the Functions of the two varieties used in a diglossic situation.

n Ferguson claims that "one of the most important features of diglossia is the specialization of function.

Diglossia

n In one set of situations only H is appropriate and in another only L, with the two sets overlapping only very slightly."

n Ferguson gives the following list:

n Sermon in church or mosque H

n Instruction to servants, waiters, workmen, clerks L

n Personal letter H

n Speech in parliament H

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n University lecture H

n Conversation with family, friends, colleagues L

n News broadcast H

n Radio ‘soap opera’ L

n Newspaper editorial, news story H

n Caption on political cartoon L

n Poetry

n Folk literature L

Diglossia

n Ferguson stresses that using the right variety in different situations is extremely important and cannot be overestimated.

n If a university professor were to give a lecture in L, he would be considered very foolish, or perhaps a political radical.

Diglossia

n A speaker who uses H in an informal conversation would either be made fun of or avoided as someone who is unbearably pompous.

n In all of the four defining situations, it is normal behavior to see people listening to a lecture or formal speech in the High variety, then discuss it, even with the speaker or lecturer himself, in the Low variety.

Diglossia

n The second feature that Ferguson uses to clarify a diglossic situation is that of Prestige.

n In all of the four defining languages, he says, speakers all regard the High variety as somehow superior to the Low variety in a number of respects.

Diglossia

n Sometime, as in the case of educated speakers of Haitian Creole, the feeling is so strong that the High variety is the only variety that is believed to be ‘real’ and speakers claim that the Low variety does not even exist.

Diglossia

n And even in situations where speakers do admit that the Low variety exists, the High variety is still regarded as being somehow more beautiful or more logical or more worthy of expressing important thoughts or information.

Diglossia

n A third important feature in distinguishing a diglossic community, in Ferguson’s framework, is that of Literary heritage.

n In all of the four defining languages, there is a large body of written literature in the High variety that is given high value by the speech community.

Diglossia

n The nature of this body of literature is different in each of the communities.

n It may, as in the case of Greek, have been produced long ago and is associated with the past history of the community; it may, as in the case of Arabic, be associated with religion; or it may, as in the cases of Haitian Creole and Swiss German, be in continuous production in another community.

Diglossia

n Ferguson’s fourth criteria for distinguishing a diglossic situation is that of Acquisition.

n In all of the four defining communities, the Low variety is learned by children as what Ferguson calls their ‘normal’ tongue.

n They speak the Low variety to each other and to their families.

Diglossia

n The High variety, on the other hand, while it may be heard from time to time, is learned almost exclusively by means of formal school education.

n The Low variety, however, is learned without the benefit of grammatical explanations, while the High is learned in terms of rules and standards.

Diglossia

n This means that the speakers in these four communities will be comfortable speaking the Low variety to a degree that they will never be able to approximate in the High variety. 

Diglossia

n The fifth feature of diglossia in Ferguson’s conception is that of Standardization.

n In the High variety, there is a strong tradition of grammatical study.

n In all four communities, there is a large body of works dealing with the grammars of the languages, dictionaries of the lexicon, and a body of research on pronunciation and style.

Diglossia

n From this large body of work, established standards of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary have been established.

n The orthography is also well-established.

n For the Low variety, however, so such standards have been established or written down.

Diglossia

n Because of this lack of standardization, there is a wide variety of pronunciations in the Low variety, as well as wide discrepancies in the grammar and lexicon, and there is no settled orthography.

n In the case of Haiti, however, a standard Low variety has arisen, based on the capital city of Port-Au-Prince.

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n And in the case of Arabic, regional standards have arisen, such as Cairene Arabic in Egypt.

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n Ferguson’s sixth criteria is that of Stability.

n Diglossic situations, Ferguson believes, typically endure for at least several centuries, and in some cases, may last well over a thousand years.

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n The most striking difference, in Ferguson’s opinion, is the seventh feature, Grammar.

n In Diglossic situations there is always extensive differences between the grammatical structures of the High and Low varieties.

n In all of the four defining communities, the High variety has grammatical structures not present in the Low varieties.

Diglossia

n The The eighth feature of diglossia that Ferguson discusses is that of Lexicon.

n Generally, most of the vocabulary between the High and Low varieties is shared, with some variations in form and with several differences in use and meaning

n For the most part, the High variety will contain technical terms and more ‘learned’ expressions.

Diglossia

n These terms and expressions will usually have no counterpart in the Low variety, since the subjects that these terms and expressions deal with will almost never be discussed in the Low variety.

n The Low variety, on the other hand, will contain popular expressions as well as the names of the basic objects of the home and of daily life.

Diglossia

n Ferguson states emphatically that the most striking feature of this distinction is the existence of pairs of items in both the High and Low variety.

n These pairs refer to the same thing, with the same range of meaning.

n However, the use of one or the other determines that the utterance is either the High or the Low variety.

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n In Greek, for example, the High variety word for ‘wine’ is ‘ínos.’ The Low variety is ‘krasí.’

n The menu, Ferguson states, will have ‘ínos’, but the customer will ask the waiter for ‘krasí.’

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n The final feature that Ferguson uses to distinguish diglossic situations is that of Phonology.

n Depending on which situation is being discussed, the phonological systems of High and Low may be quite close, or they may be diverse.

n Two statements, however, can be justified, Ferguson claims:

Diglossia

n 1. The sound systems of High and Low constitute a single phonological structure of which the Low variety phonology is the basic system and the divergent features of the High phonology are either a subsystem or a parasystem.

Diglossia

n 2. If ‘pure’ High items have phonemes not found in pure Low items, Low phonemes frequently substitute for these in oral use of High and regularly replace them.

n Based on the above detailed distinguishing features, Ferguson gives a fuller description of the term diglossia:

Diglossia

n "Diglossia is a relatively stable language system in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language, (which may include a standard or regional standard) there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, . . . 

Diglossia

n . . . which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation."